Portion of the James River affected by emergency closure of shellfish harvest.

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — The Virginia Department of Health has closed portions of two Virginia rivers to shellfish harvesting because of potential pollution in floodwaters triggered by heavy rains in western Virginia.

The affected rivers are the James and Rappahannock. All of the lower James River, from the vicinity of Hog Point in Hog Island State Wildlife Management Area to the vicinity of the Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel is closed. The closed portion of the Rappahannock extends from the vicinity of Accopatough Beach in Richmond County down to a line between Monaskon in Lancaster County and Stove Point in Middlesex County.

The emergency closures apply only to bivalve mollusks — such as oysters, mussels, and clams. Crustaceans, such as crabs, and fin fish are not affected.

The closures went into effect on January 27. Michelle Peregoy, a spokesperson for the Virginia Department of Health, said the closures are expected to remain in force for at least two weeks.

Portion of the Rappahannock River affected by emergency closure of shellfish harvest.

When heavy rains fall in western Virginia, there is a potential for runoff laden with chemical pollution and animal and human waste. Filter-feeding organisms, such as bivalves, tend to concentrate pollutants and pathogens in their tissues and make it easier for humans who eat the shellfish to get poisoned or ill afterward.

Peregoy said the primary concern is that the contaminated runoff may carry pathogens that cause a number of water-borne diseases. Those of particular concern are hepatitis a virus, norovirus, Salmonella, and Shigella.

The emergency closures will remain in effect until testing indicates that it is safe to resume the harvest.

– David M. Lawrence

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Placards like this are used to mark containers containing potentially explosive materials.

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — The port of Morehead City, N.C., has been closed this morning because of a leak of the explosive PETN. Morehead City Mayor Jerry Jones told CNN about noon today that the leak has been contained.

Chief Petty Officer Mike Hvozda (USCG) said the PETN was released from nine heavy cardboard-sided containers — each with a capacity of about two cubic feet — that were punctured by a forklift while unloading a ship at the port early this morning.

As a result of the leak, officials ordered a voluntary evacuation of downtown Morehead City. They recommended that citizens who chose not to leave stay inside and away from windows. In addition, the U.S. Coast Guard established a two-nautical-mile safety zone around the port until the spill is cleaned up.

PETN, Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, is the explosive that recently gained notoriety in the Christmas Day airline bomb plot. Like another notorious explosive, nitroglycerin, PETN is also used as a vasodilator — a drug used to increase blood flow, often to the heart to relieve symptoms of angina.

Fortunately, PETN is not volatile. According to the 2008 edition of the Emergency Response Guidebook, it is typically transported as a crystalline solid containing between 10 and 20 percent PETN.

The substance itself is relatively nontoxic, although it may cause nausea and headaches if swallowed. The primary risk — certainly in this case — is its explosive potential.

In the case of a spill, the Emergency Response Guidebook recommends isolation and an initial evacuation of an area of at least 100 meters (330 feet) radius. If a large spill, which may have been the case in Morehead City, it recommends an initial evacuation of an area of at least 500 meters (one-third mile) in all directions. In the case of fire, the recommendation is an initial evacuation. of an area at least 800 meters (one-half mile) in all directions.

Carteret County Emergency Services Director Jo Ann Smith said the area evacuated extends along the U.S. Highway 70 corridor from 4th Street to the Beaufort Drawbridge. In addition to the port, the area evacuated includes the Dockside Marina & Ships Store, the Morehead City Yacht Basin, and portions of Radio Island. Smith said it did not include nearby Fort Macon State Park.

– David M. Lawrence

EDITOR’S NOTE: This story has been updated throughout the day.

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Gratuitous beach photo: A woman views the sunset at First Encounter Beach, Cape Cod, Massachusetts.

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — Anyone who has looked at this blog has noticed that nothing has been posted here in a long time.  Some of you have e-mailed me and asked “Why?”

I face the same problem that many freelance journalists do: These days, it “pays” to blog, yet it really doesn’t $PAY$ to blog. In other words, blogs are a way to become more visible and to do the kind of reportage we really want to do; but our blogs don’t — at least in the short run — generate the income we need to pay the bills, which includes paying for the blog.

In my case, I had some drop-dead deadlines to meet toward the end of last summer, then I was offered the opportunity to work temporarily for Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution this fall.  Given my advanced age (48), I can no longer work around the clock the way I could when I was younger.  Something had to give, and this blog got axed (temporarily) from my schedule.

For example, the previous entry for this blog took about three weeks of nearly full-time-equivalent reporting — for which I earned exactly $0. Many bloggers struggle with finding a balance between the need to do a good job versus the income, or lack thereof, deriving from that good work. I obviously haven’t found the solution.

So, for those of you seeking news on the environment of the Mid-Atlantic the past few months, my apologies.  I am now back and hope to do a better job of posting regularly to this site without sacrificing my journalistic standards.

In the meantime, if any of you hear of a job in the neighborhood, please let me know…

– David M. Lawrence

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Plastic bag litter is a problem everywhere. (Copyright © 2009 David M. Lawrence)

EDITOR’S NOTE: The story was modified on June 23 to update the lede with more recent developments concerning the bill.

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — Despite opposition from business and industry groups, the North Carolina legislature Tuesday passed a bill to ban some uses of plastic bags in the three Outer Banks counties.

The Senate version of the bill was passed on May 13. The House followed suit with a modified version of the Senate bill Thursday, which the Senate approved on a 44-2 vote late Monday night. Chrissy Pearson, press secretary for Gov. Bev Perdue, said Monday that the governor is expected to sign the measure.

While most press accounts, including this one, refer to the legislation as a plastic bag ban, the legislation — pushed by Sen. Marc Basnight, president pro tempore of the North Carolina state Senate — was not meant to trigger the seemingly unending paper versus plastic debate.

“The purpose of the bill is to encourage people to use reusable bags instead of plastic or paper bags,” said state Sen. Josh Stein, the chief senate sponsor of the legislation. “The bill requires retailers to provide an incentive to consumers who bring and use their own bags.”

Nevertheless, as the bill — which applies only to the barrier islands such as those that make up the Outer Banks in Currituck, Dare, and Hyde counties — restricts the use of single-use plastic bags to fresh fish, meat, and poultry; fresh meat, fish, and poultry products; and fresh vegetables, the legislation was seen primarily as a plastic bag ban. Use of paper bags, however, would be restricted to 100 percent recycled material. Incentives to encourage customers to use their own bags range from cash and coupons to credits in a retailer’s rewards program.

Even though the goal is to encourage use of reusable bags, Stein explained why paper bags will remain an option.

“If a consumer forgets his or her reusable bag, then the retailer has to provide paper instead of plastic because paper biodegrades in nature, unlike plastic,” Stein said. “Trash bags are a blight. North Carolina’s state flower is the dogwood; I don’t want the plastic bag to replace it.”

North Carolina Rep. Pricey Harrison, one of the bill’s House sponsors, said that business groups opposed to the legislation were concerned about fairness — the legislation applies only to stores with wholesale or retail space greater than 5,000 square feet as well as those who are part of a chain of five or more outlets in the state — and availability of recycled paper bags as there are no manufacturers of recycled paper bags in North Carolina.

The American Chemistry Council says encouraging recycling will help reduce plastic bag litter. (American Chemistry Council)

Plastic industry representatives opposed the legislation for other reasons — the environmental impact of plastic bag bans. Several life-cycle studies of paper bags versus plastic ones show that the manufacturing of plastic bags consumes far less energy and materials and produces far less waste than the manufacture of paper bags. Far less waste is likewise generated by the manufacture of the standard retail plastic bag. Likewise, recycling plastic bags consumes less energy and generates less waste than recycling paper bags. In landfills, neither bag degrades to any significant extent. In the landscape, however, paper bags will biodegrade whereas plastic will physically break down into very tiny pellets.

One of the most significant problems with plastic bags, however, is their effect in the marine environment, where sea turtles and mammals may confuse the bags with food sources like jellyfish. In a post-mortem study of more than 400 leatherback turtles, researchers at Dalhousie University in Canada found that more than a third of the turtles had plastic materials in their digestive tracts. Plastic bags were the most common component of that material. The concern over marine litter inspired the focus on the Outer Banks in the North Carolina legislation.

“Certainly, the littering — and marine litter — is a problem,” said Keith Christman of the American Chemistry Council. “We believe that we must all work together to prevent litter, and prevent marine litter, but we believe that bans are the wrong approach.”

Christman said that studies of the effectiveness of bans in other locations, such as a 2007 ban on plastic bags in San Francisco, have often revealed unintended consequences such as an increase in litter volume overall — not what proponents of the legislation would like to see. He cited a study by Robert Lilienfield, editor of The ULS [Use Less Stuff] Report, that showed that the amount of packaging increased after the city’s plastic ban was implemented — customers failed to switch to reusable bags and retailers often double-bagged purchases with paper bags because they assumed that’s what customers wanted. Another unintended consequence is that after the plastic bag ban was implemented, stores removed plastic recycling bins — where many people dropped off used plastic — from their premises.

Christman has no problem with the primary goal of the legislation — to encourage greater use of reusable bags.

“We strongly support the use of reusable bags. Reusable bags are a great part of a comprehensive approach — reduce, reuse, and recycle,” Christman said. “That’s what we think we should be doing, focusing on that comprehensive approach.”

The key, he said is to educate merchants and customers to make wiser choices regarding the use and disposal of plastic materials. He cited an industry-sponsored effort, “Plastics. Too Valuable to Waste.  Recycle,” in partnership with the California Department of State Parks and Recreation and the nonprofit organization Keep California Beautiful.

While the current legislation applies only to the barrier islands along the Atlantic coast, legislators such as Basnight would like to see a statewide effort to encourage the use of reusable bags. It remains to be seen if the ban — assuming Perdue signs it into law as expected — will be effective in achieving that goal. Most likely, a strong public education and effort will be required as well.

“Encouraging recycling is important,” Christman said. “I think the thing we really need to do with bags is to make it more commonly understood by folks that they can recycle plastic bags at their grocery stores as well as other wraps. … We want people to bring back their dry cleaning bags, their wraps around cases of soda, their wraps around cases of diapers and paper towels and everything else.”

– David M. Lawrence

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Changes in seasonal precipitation patterns in North America. (U.S. Global Change Research Program)

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — “Human-induced climate change is a reality, not only in remote polar regions and in small, tropical islands, but in every place around the country — in our own backyards. Climate change is happening. It’s happening now.”

So said Dr. Jane Lubchenco, undersecretary of Commerce for Oceans & Atmosphere and NOAA Administrator, at a White House news conference Tuesday announcing the release of the report Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. The report documents evidence of climate change effects in the United States today, discusses projected effects over the next century, and offers a breakdown by region — including the Mid-Atlantic.

The report contains little information new to those who have followed the climate change debate over the years, it marked the first time since President George W. Bush’s inauguration in 2001 that the White House has unequivocally stated that humans are driving much of the climate changes documented today.

Jonathan Hoekstra, director of the Climate Change Program at The Nature Conservancy, summarized the importance of the report.

“This report paints the clearest picture yet of the risks that climate change poses to the United States — our infrastucture, our water supplies, agriculture, energy, health, and ecosystems,” Hoekstra said. “Impacts have often seemed far off and in someone else’s backyard.  No more.  If we don’t take decisive action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, too many of these risks will become realities.”

Aaron Huertas of the Union of Concerned Scientists offered a similar assessment.

“While the studies cited in the report aren’t new, the assessment process is an opportunity to identify the most important effects climate change could have on the United States,” Huertas said. “If anything, this report served to further underscore the differences between a future with unchecked climate change and one in which emissions — and resulting temperature increases — are greatly reduced.”

The report is required by the Global Change Research Act of 1990. The law established the U.S. Global Change Research Program and mandated that national assessment reports detailing current and potential climate change effects on the U.S. be produced every four years. The first report was produced by the Clinton administration in 2000, but the Bush administration — noted for its skepticism on climate change matters and allegations of trying to muzzle scientists researching climate change issues (allegations backed by documents, by the way) — was sued by environmental groups its failure to produce the next scheduled assessment in 2004.

The Bush administration lost. It released a first draft of what became the current report in 2008 as ordered by the court.

Among the overall findings of the report, it says that average temperature rise in the United States has followed the global trend, with a 1.5°F increase since 1990 and an additional increase of 2°F to 11.5°F by 2100. Without the human contribution in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and other temperature drives, global average temperatures would have cooled slightly since the 1950s. The higher temperatures will lead to decreased demand for energy for heating, but increased demand for energy for cooling. Urban residents are very vulnerable to heat-related illnesses and deaths as a result of rising temperatures.

Projected number of days with temperatures greater than 100 degrees by the end of the century. (U.S. Global Change Research Program)

Southern states will see a decrease in precipitation amount, northern states will see an increase. Seasonal precipitation patterns will change, too, with almost all of the Lower 48 states seeing a decrease in summer precipitation amount. Much of the nation has already seen an increase in the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation events. Changes in precipitation patterns will affect water supplies and hydropower production in some regions.

Ecosystem effects are already being felt. Among those effects are changes in ecosystem functions such as decomposition and nutrient cycling, in geographic distribution of species, in timing of migrations, in disturbance (such as wildfire) regimes, in pest and disease outbreaks, and in invasions by non-native species. Agricultural ecosystems will be similarly affected.

The Mid-Atlantic region is split in the report: Delaware, the District of Columbia, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania are in what the report describes as the Northeast, while North Carolina and Virginia are in the Southeast. What are the key findings for the region? It depends.

“It depends on who you are and what you do,” Huertas said “People who plan on deriving much of their income from agricultural products such as cranberries and some types of apples need to think about a long-term plan for switching to other crops or seeing reduced yields as frost days decline. Some ski resorts in the Northeast will be tenable, while others might not be. Coastal cities especially will have to watch out for sea level rise. And cities such as Philadelphia and New York will have to deal with potential sewage system overflows due to higher precipitation. There are many more examples, but the basic nature of climate change is that it alters fundamental aspects of our life and society we take for granted.”

In the northern portion of the Mid-Atlantic, winter temperatures have risen twice as much as the annual average — 4°F as opposed to 2°F since 1970. More frequent hot days (over 90°F), longer growing seasons, increased incidence of heavy precipitation events and a shift in winter precipitation from snow to rain (leading to earlier melt of snowpack) have been observed over much of the region. In the southern portion of the Mid-Atlantic, fall precipitation has increased somewhat, but summer precipitation has decreased –  leading to an increased incidence of summer drought the past three decades.

In the future, warmer conditions will render much of the region unsuitable for crops long associated with it, such as apples, blueberries, and cranberries. The dairy industry will likewise be adversely affected, as will the maple syrup industry as maple/beech/birch forests are displaced to the north by oak-hickory forests. The shorter winters and decreased snowpack will likewise adversely affect the winter sports industy throughout the region.

Toward the south, higher summer temperatures and lower summer precipitation will trigger a rise in heat-related illnesses, higher heat indexes and greater demand for energy to cool homes and businesses. Roads will be affected, as the hotter temperatures will lead to more frequent buckling of pavement on roads and possible warping of rails leading to derailments. As soil moisture is depleted, crops will suffer.

Climate change will likely lead to expansion of Cheseapeake Bay dead zones. (U.S. Global Change Research Program)

Coastal areas will have to cope with rising sea levels, which contribute to shoreline erosion and loss of coastal wetlands and real estate. Coastal development will be more vulnerable to higher storm surges. Rising water temperatures will likely trigger an increase in the frequency and intensity of tropical storm systems. Increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is making the oceans more acid, which makes it more difficult for shellfish to extract from the water the carbonate minerals they use to make their shells. The combination of higher water temperatures and increased spring runoff will lead the expansion of oxygen-depleted “dead zones” in coastal waters like the Chesapeake Bay. Warmer waters will also lead to a northward shift in the geographic distributions of some marine organisms — such shifts are already under way.

Despite the dire outlook for the region, Huertas finds room for hope.

“I can tell you that the Mid-Atlantic region has been a leader in adopting renewable electricity standards, clean car standards and even a cap-and-trade system for power plants,” said Huertas. “Members of Congress are now considering climate and energy legislation based in large part on success Northeast states and Mid-Atlantic states have had with this type of policy. Hopefully, the United States can take the same leadership role in the world as the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic states have assumed in the U.S.”

– David M. Lawrence

EDITOR’S NOTE: An earlier version of this story was posted without the comment by Jonathan Hoekstra of The Nature Conservancy, who had not have time to respond by the time of the original post. The story was revised to incorportate his statement.

DISCLOSURE: The editor, David M. Lawrence, occasionally volunteers for The Nature Conservancy, the organization for whom the source Jonathan Hoekstra works.

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A young girl picks her way through mud following flooding in Mingo County, W.Va., in May. (Steven W. Rotsch/West Virginia Governor's Office)

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — The Federal Emergency Management Agency warned residents of flood-stricken areas of southern West Virginia that, even though the water has gone, lingering threats remain.

Heavy rains triggered flash flooding in southern West Virginia on Friday, May 8, and Saturday, May 9. More than 300 buildings were destroyed, mud and debris littered miles of the landscape, and West Virginia Gov. Joe Manchin declared a state of emergency in six counties. Mingo and Wyoming counties were hardest hit. President Barack Obama issued a disaster declaration for those two counties as well as McDowell and Raleigh counties.

The initial focus — beyond saving life and limb — was on drying out, cleaning up, and repairing structures that could be saved. As people return to their homes, however, FEMA warned of two potential threats that are not so easily noticed.

On Monday, the agency issued an statement warning those who rely on private wells for water that some of those wells may have been contaminated during the flooding. FEMA recommended that well owners get their water supply inspected and tested if their wells were either flooded or near a flooded area; or if they have noticed a change in water quality — such as odor or taste — in their well water since the May flooding event.

Individuals in the four counties covered by the disaster declaration may be eligible for federal aid to repair or decontaminate damaged or compromised wells.

The other potential problem FEMA warned of is one that can grow on you — mold. Damp environments, such as those found in water-damaged buildings, offer excellent conditions for the growth of fungi like molds. Presence of mold can be indicated by fuzzy growth on or discoloration of walls, floors, and other surfaces; it can also be indicated by a musty, unpleasant odor. Mold spores may trigger respiratory problems, such as allergy and asthma attacks. People with chronic respiratory problems are advised to avoid contact with molds.

FEMA offered the following advice to those planning or conducting a mold cleanup: 1) maintain good ventilation while cleaning; 2) avoid use of air conditioning until the system has been checked by a professional, as the air conditioning system may spread mold spores throughout the building; 3) discard moldy, porous materials — including insulation, mattresses, upholstery, and ceiling tiles; 4) scrub mold off hard surfaces such as tiles or floors with household detergent and water and dry thoroughly, preferably using fans to speed the drying process; and 5) clean and dry moldy surfaces before attempting to paint or caulk them.

In its press release, FEMA cited U.S. Environmental Protection Agency guidance for anyone going into a mold-infested building — wear rubber gloves, goggles, and use an N-95 respirator, all of which can be found at hardware or home-improvement stores.

– David M. Lawrence

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Tourists enjoy Virginia Beach.
(Copyright © 2005 David M. Lawrence)

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — Last Thursday, just a weekend before the first official observance of World Oceans Day, the governors of Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Virginia signed an agreement committing the states to a cooperative effort to protect the ocean waters of the Mid-Atlantic.

The “Mid-Atlantic Governors’ Agreement on Ocean Conservation” establishes the Mid-Atlantic Regional Council of the Ocean — consisting of the five governors — which should improve coordination among the states and minimize state-line obstacles to effective action.

“Our coastal waters are a vital part of our history and economy,” Virginia Governor Tim Kaine said in a statement. “I am very pleased to be coordinating efforts and resources with our regional neighbors to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of our conservation efforts.”

The governors agreed that the council should — at least initially — concentrate on the following priorities: 1) regional coordination of the  protection of important habitats and sensitive and unique offshore areas; 2) promotion of improvement in regional water quality as a focal point for action; 3) regional collaboration on sustainable development of offshore renewable energy sources; and 4) preparation of the region’s coastal communities for the effects of climate change.

“I think there’s a lot of potential for it to make a big difference,” said Jackie Savitz. “I say that because there’s so many things that need to happen with regard to the oceans. Since the oceans don’t have state boundaries, these are issues that the governors are all going to be having to work on together in some ways.”

Among the issues Savitz says the governors will have to cooperate on is that of climate change and the development of offshore energy resources.

“The question of whether we need to be drilling for additional oil and gas off the coast is one that all these governors will be grappling with,” Savitz said. “Whether we can generate energy with offshore wind is another one that all these governors are going to be grappling with. When you look at offshore wind, one of the best places to get in in the U.S. is off the Mid-Atlantic coast — nearly anywhere off the Atlantic Coast as opposed to the West coast or the Gulf.”

Aside from offshore energy development, Savitz said another key issue will be water quality.

“These are all states that that have a lot of similarities in terms of beaches,” said Savitz. “New York and New Jersey, especially, but Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia all have a big component of their economy dependent on tourism and beaches, so I can see them working on water quality-type issues.”

Within the next six months, the governors plan a summit — involving members of the academic, advocacy, and business communities — to plan and implement shared actions to be undertaken as part of the agreement. Beginning in the spring, the council will begin periodic reviews of its progress and make revisions to its plans as it deems necessary.

It is not yet known how this partnership will affect cooperative efforts on another common resource — the Chesapeake Bay — but Kaine, in his statement, linked the Bay’s health to that of other coastal ecosystems. Some of the council’s stated goals, such as reducing runoff pollution into the region’s waterways, will benefit the Chesapeake, Delaware Bay, and coastal Atlantic waters collectively.

Despite the threats facing the region’s marine environment, Savitz said that enthusiasm for the effort was high among the troops.

“I was at the conference … and they had a series of working sessions in addition to the press conference that they held. There were about 200 state resource agency staff there. In their working sessions, they were talking about what the issues would be, what kind of mechanisms they could use to work together and things like that,” Savitz said. “From what I heard from some of the staff, they were the kind of working sessions where everybody was really enthusiastic and they were going over time, running out of time. I think it is a positive step.”

– David M. Lawrence

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Sunrise over Cape Lookout, N.C. (Copyright © 2009 David M. Lawrence)

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — Today, June 8, 2009, is the first official World Oceans Day.

Canada proposed holding a World Oceans Day in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The United Nations dithered initially, but the Canadian idea inspired many to unofficially celebrate the day since. Persistent supporters eventually forced the UN to take notice. In its 63rd session last year, the General Assembly included a small paragraph in its resolution 63/111 on “Oceans and the law of the sea” officially sanctioning the day’s observance.

Why is such a day needed? There are many reasons. The oceans cover nearly two-thirds of the Earth’s surface. Marine organisms generate most of the oxygen those of use who are landlocked need to survive. Ocean waters absorb significant amounts of carbon dioxide — such as that we emit by the combustion of fossil fuels — thus reducing or at least slowing the effects of anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change. Ocean currents play a vital role in controlling the Earth’s overall temperature by transporting excess solar heat from the tropics to the poles. They are a vital source of food — especially in many impoverished tropical and island nations — and compounds that are critical components of current and potential drugs as well as of products seemingly unrelated to oceans such as Jell-o.

UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon offered the following message (in italics) for today’s observance of World Oceans Day.

The first observance of World Oceans Day allows us to highlight the many ways in which oceans contribute to society. It is also an opportunity to recognize the considerable challenges we face in maintaining their capacity to regulate the global climate, supply essential ecosystem services and provide sustainable livelihoods and safe recreation.

Indeed, human activities are taking a terrible toll on the world’s oceans and seas. Vulnerable marine ecosystems, such as corals, and important fisheries are being damaged by over-exploitation, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, destructive fishing practices, invasive alien species and marine pollution, especially from land-based sources. Increased sea temperatures, sea-level rise and ocean acidification caused by climate change pose a further threat to marine life, coastal and island communities and national economies.

Oceans are also affected by criminal activity. Piracy and armed robbery against ships threaten the lives of seafarers and the safety of international shipping, which transports 90 per cent of the world’s goods. Smuggling of illegal drugs and the trafficking of persons by sea are further examples of how criminal activities threaten lives and the peace and security of the oceans.

Several international instruments drawn up under the auspices of the United Nations address these numerous challenges. At their centre lies the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. It provides the legal framework within which all activities in the oceans and seas must be carried out, and is the basis for international cooperation at all levels. In addition to aiming at universal participation, the world must do more to implement this Convention and to uphold the rule of law on the seas and oceans.

The theme of World Oceans Day, “Our oceans, our responsibility”, emphasizes our individual and collective duty to protect the marine environment and carefully manage its resources. Safe, healthy and productive seas and oceans are integral to human well-being, economic security and sustainable development.

We face daunting challenges in trying to manage and restore our marine ecosystems, but we likewise face dire consequences if we fail to rise to those challenges. The evidence — from the collapsing ecosystem of the Chesapeake Bay, from the degradation and erosion of our Atlantic coastline, from the idle fishing fleets — is pretty clear. Decisive action is needed to undo the damage we have done.

I hope that “Our oceans, our responsibility” turns out to be more than idle words uttered in the heat of marketing.

– David M. Lawrence

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Redbreast sunfish with Aeromonas salmonicida lesion above pectoral fin.

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — The mysterious fish kills that have afflicted the waters of western Virginia the past few years have returned, but this year federal and state researchers appear closer to determining their cause.

In May, anglers and fisheries biologists began reporting small numbers of dead fish and larger numbers of live fish with skin lesions from the North and South forks of the Shenandoah River; the North, Middle, and South rivers; and upper reaches of the James River. Smallmouth bass and redbreast sunfish have been hardest hit by the illnesses and deaths, but other species have been affected, too. Nevertheless, this year’s incarnation appears to be less severe — so far.

A similar syndrome of death and disease was first reported from the headwaters of the Potomac in 2002 and from the Shenandoah in 2004. During 2004 and 2005, nearly 80 percent of adult smallmouth bass and redbreast sunfish were lost. The first signs of disease were skin lesions caused by bacteria. The infection progressed until affected fish died. In ensuing years, fish kills have also been observed in the Cowpasture, Jackson, James, and Maury rivers.

In 2006 intersex fish — individuals with both male and female characteristics — were found in the Cowpasture, Maury, and Shenandoah rivers.

Over the years, an intensive search has been conducted by federal and state scientists for possible pathogenic or chemical causes of the disease that kills the fish. The first big break came last year, when Dr. Rocco Cipriano of the U.S. Geological Survey determined that the bacteria Aeromonas salmonicida was the primary pathogen present when disease symptoms and death were occurring among the fish. A. salmonicida causes furunculosis and other diseases characterized by skin lesions and septicemia (blood poisoning).

It is still not known whether the bacterial infection is a cause of the fish kills or if it is just associated with the conditions that lead to the fish deaths. A. salmonicida generally cannot survive the warm water temperatures typical of summer, so other research is seeking to find whether cold-water refuges — like springs — exist in the waters where the fish kills have occurred or whether the bacteria are reintroduced into the streams each year.

Rivers affected by fish kills in Virginia. (Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries)

This week, a team of U.S. Geological Survey researchers found a possible link between chemical contamination in the rivers affected and the occurrence  of intersex individuals, skin lesions, and death of fish that has been observed since 2002. In a study published in the June 2009 issue of the journal Fish & Shellfish Immunology, a team led by Laura Robertson (Leetown Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Kearneysville, WV, USA) investigated whether estrogen and estrogen-mimicking chemicals could affect levels of hepcidin, a protein that regulates iron levels. Hepcidin is also believed to serve as part of the fish immune defense by either killing or restricting the growth of bacteria.

Robertson and colleagues found that, in largemouth bass, estrogen and estrogen mimics reduced production of one type of hepcidin and blocked production of another type. If these results are confirmed by further studies, it could link all phenomena observed when the fish kills occur and possibly point the way toward prevention or at least control of the problem by reducing pollution from estrogen and similar compounds.

Bill Hayden, public affairs director for the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality, viewed the results with caution, however.

“DEQ is aware of the investigations of intersex fish and whether they are connected with the fish kills in western Virginia rivers,” Hayden said. “We do not have sufficient evidence to identify estrogens or other endocrine disruptors as a cause of the kills, but the issue remains under investigation.”

– David M. Lawrence

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Whitman Miller of the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center checks an experimental aquarium used to rear juvenile oysters. (Smithsonian Environmental Research Center)

MECHANICSVILLE, Va. — The shellfish of the Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries in the Mid-Atlantic region face a host of threats to their survival. Overfishing, pollution, sedimentation, habitat destruction, and introduced species have taken a toll on many shelled species, such as the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica), that play important roles in maintaining the health of the estuarine ecosystems. A new study, led by Whitman Miller (Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, Maryland, USA), finds another potentially disastrous threat coming from the atmosphere — ocean acidification.

The findings have significant implications for efforts to restore the Chesapeake Bay ecosystem.

“Our results suggest that the native eastern oyster is quite sensitive to elevated CO2/reduced pH,” Miller said. “Future restoration efforts should probably consider the chemical conditions of waters when selecting locations for oyster restoration.”

The acidification of the oceans is driven by carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere as a result of our combustion of fossil fuels. While some debate whether or not humans are causing climate change by these carbon dioxide emissions, the effect on the oceans is clear. Carbon dioxide in the air readily dissolves in water, making the water more acidic by the formation of carbonic acid.

Acidity is measured by pH — a scale from 0 to 14 in which lower numbers mean more acidic conditions and higher numbers mean more basic (alkaline) conditions. Neutral pH (neither acid nor alkaline) is 7. The scale is logarithmic, such that a decrease of 1 unit on the scale — from 7 to 6, for example, represents a tenfold increase in acidity level.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the pH of the oceans has dropped by 0.1 — while the number seems small, it actually represents a 30 percent increase in acidity.

The primary concern is how the increased acidity affects shellfish species that build their shells from carbonate minerals — primarily aragonite and calcite — extracted from the water. Acidic waters easily dissolve these minerals, making it harder for the animals to extract them from the water and in turn build shells. [Remember what happened to the baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) after the addition of vinegar (acetic acid) in the elementary school volcano experiment?]

So far, most of the concern over ocean acidification was focused on marine ecosystems such as coral reefs which are built from carbonate minerals deposited by reef-building corals and algae. Given the differences in physical conditions between oceanic and estuarine environments, the new study, published last Wednesday in the journal PLoS ONE, assessed whether shellfish in estuaries and coastal environments would be more vulnerable than those in oceans.

Projected mean summer positions of aragonite compensation points for the Chesapeake Bay under preindustrial, present, and predicted atmospheric CO2 levels. (From Miller et al., 2009)

Estuaries and nearshore coastal ecosystems are less deep, less saline, and less alkaline than the open ocean. Any one of the three conditions reduces the ability to buffer against changes in pH. The compensation point — the point below which it becomes more expensive in terms of energy required for organisms to extract carbonate minerals from the water — is also a function of the salinity and temperature of the water. Lower pH, lower salinity, and increasing temperatures all increase the compensation point, shifting it seaward, i.e., reducing the area where conditions are favorable for shell production.

Given those conditions, Miller and his colleagues suspected that larval oysters would be the most severely affected as they relied more on aragonite — the more soluble of the two minerals — to form their shells while mature oysters relied more on calcite.

To test its hypothesis, the research team grew larval oysters of two species, eastern oyster and Suminoe oyster (Crassostrea ariakensis), a species native to Asia, in estuarine water under four different atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide — 280, 380, 560, and 800 ppm. The concentrations correspond with preindustrial, current, and projected atmospheric concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide 50 and 100 years from now.

Oyster larvae as seen through a microscope. (Smithsonian Environmental Research Center)

Suminoe oysters showed no noticeable effect from the increased carbon dioxide, either in terms of growth (shell area) or in terms of shell calcium content. Eastern oysters, however, showed a 16 percent decrease in growth rate and a 42 percent decrease in calcium content when comparing preindustrial to year 2100 carbon dioxide concentrations.

Miller and colleagues conclude that, while the effects of acidification will vary from species to species and place to place, it may lead to reductions in growth or even in the geographic distribution of estuarine shellfish. Given the energy costs of shell formation, the increasing difficulty in extracting carbonate minerals from the water may force the animals to take energy away from other important processes, such as immune defense or reproduction. This may be exacerbated by other stressors in the environment, such as extreme temperatures and pollution. Slower shell formation and growth may — by forcing larvae to spend longer periods in the planktonic, or floating, stage — reduce the percentage of oyster larvae surviving to maturity.

The researchers are very concerned about the future of estuarine and coastal ecosystems, which because of their greater environmental variability, can be much more stressful for their inhabitants than open ocean ecosystems. Disastrous environmental and economic consequences may result if organisms that form shells based on carbonate minerals give way to those that do not.

Chris French, Virginia Director of the Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, would like to see this research confirmed by other studies as well as expanded to other mollusk species, such as clams. He also wonders what the consequences may be for those who make their living on the water.

“It’s definitely concerns me that, given the current state of the oyster population, it looks like we have another potential challenge ahead of us as far as the restoration of the native oyster,” French said. “It definitely raises some additional concerns, not just on the ecology of the Bay restoration effort, but also of the economic implications because we’ve seen so many people in the watermen’s sector whose livelihoods depend on the shellfish resources.”

– David M. Lawrence

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